Fig. 1 shows the overall effect sizes ( lnRR¯) of NT as compared to CT on CO2 (n = 116), N2O (n = 181), CH4 (n = 168) emissions and crop yield (n = 156). Overall, NT showed significantly positive effect on all three GHGs emissions as compared to CT. On average, NT significantly increased CO2, N2O, and CH4 emissions by 7.1% (95% CI = 4.3%, 9.8%), 11.9% (95% CI = 8.3%, 15.7%), and 20.8% (95% CI = 18.0%, 10.8%), respectively (Fig. 1). In contrast, crop yields were not significantly different ( lnRR¯